literature review

Play knows no age

Jasmine Chong 576422X • Melissa Chubb 6146635
Chloe Dam 6146716 • Justine Fotia 5691435 • Melissa Beel (Special consideration) 6149391

HDG407 SOCIAL PATTERNS RESEARCH • KEITH ROBERTSON • 7.30PM TUESDAY

Abstract

Since the time of Plato, and arguably since the beginning of time (Huizinga, J. 1944, p3), the phenomena of play and its significance to human life has caught the attention of well-known and published philosophers, educators and psychologists. With a multitude of definitions and theories on play, one fact cannot be denied; play must have a purpose it cannot just be (Cohen, D. 1987, p3). As humans we are genetically hardwired to engage in play, using it as a tool to adapt to ‘new social interactions’ (Elkind, D. 1970, p.1) and a method of maintaining physical, emotional and mental well being. Play helps assist our connection and understanding of identity, of ourselves, of others and of the world around us. Therefore it can be assumed that play is essential and should not be naively subjected to the stigma that it belongs purely to the realm of childhood. By using Erikson’s eight stages of human development (Elkind, D. 1970) in conjunction with other primary and secondary sources such as online journals, articles and the theories of experts, we aim to explore the heavily documented concept of play and the extent to which play positively contributes to all stages of human development in our current social context. This research, conducted over a month long period, highlights the trends and gaps, where persons of any age may not recognise or engage with the power of play as much as potentially could, or perhaps should. It also surfaces findings that indicate external factors such as work and family commitments affect an adult’s ability to play, while certain stigmas of play becoming apparent in the aged community.

Introduction

Before examining the extent that play positively contributes to human development, one should attempt to understand the complexity of play. Is play what children do for fun, a frivolous activity that doesn’t serve any apparent immediate purpose? (Cohen, D. 1987, p.2, Pellegrini, A. & Smith, P. 1998, p.51) Or is play a learning experience (Cohen, D. 1987, p.1), an engine of change (Cheyne, J. 1989, p.2) intrinsically woven into the fabric of the social practice of human life, transforming our personal health, our relationships, our education and our resilience to cope with whatever life throws our way (National Institute of Play, 2010). Maybe play cannot be coded, categorised or conceptually controlled (Howard, J, 2002, p.500), however if one wishes to interpret the meaning and function of play a fact that simply cannot be over looked is that ‘play must have a purpose, it cannot just be’ (Cohen, D. 1987, p.3).

History of play

Plato, an ancient Greek philosopher heralded for his education thinking, believed that a desirable life, ‘happiness’, is achieved by playing the roles that the gods designed us to play, that we are ‘toys of God' frolicking through a cosmic game similar to that of 'hide-and seek' (O'Connell, R. 1997, p. 20). Plato believed that children and adults learn best by being in play, that ‘they turn the eyes of their souls to the Good and True’, discovering the truth (identity) of themselves, of others and of world around them (Hunnicutt, B. 1990).

A significant German psychoanalyst, Sigmund Freud, argued that play was the means through which a child expressed their identity, often too difficult to capture in words alone. They immersed themselves in play and subconsciously used it to work through and master quite complex psychological difficulties of the past and present (Bettelheim, B, 1987, p.1). Jean Piaget, whose play theories form the basis of educational play therapy, believed human intellect and the ‘ego’ were developed in stages through play. He observed how a child transformed the environment to meet their own requirements, ‘assimilation’, and transformed themselves to meet the requirements of their immediate environment, ‘accommodation’. (Elkonin, D. 2005, p.53-4). Similarly to Freud, Piaget argued that children use play to tackle ‘underlying unconscious conflicts’ that arise when transitioning from their own special world into the adult world (Elkonin, D. 2005, p.53-4). Unlike Plato, Freud and Piaget limited their play theories to children, probably because any adult who ‘pranced around in a funny hat in the 1900’s was likely to become be a candidate for the funny farm (Cohen, D. 1987, p.7).

Karl Groos, a psychologist and zoologist, is credited for his play theories that highlighted parallels in animal play behaviour and human play. He argued that play is a survival tactic, instinctively used by children as they transition into adulthood (Elkonin, D. 2005, p.4). His play theories were possibly the inspiration behind revolutionary play studies conducted in the 1960’s involving animals and humans. These studies explored the effects play and “enriched environments” had on the cerebral cortex. This is the area of the brain associated with higher cognitive processing that is shaped by experience, controlling future behaviours (Diamond, M., 2001). For an environment to be considered “enriched” it must contain variables such as stimuli not commonly found in habitats. The results demonstrated that “enriched environments” altered the chemistry and anatomy of the cerebral cortex, improving memory and learning ability. The most remarkable finding was that brain activity improved regardless of the animal or humans age, leading to further studies on play beyond the realm of children (Diamond, M., 2001).

The therapeutic nature of play has also been proven to not only reduce stress but also to help one relax, it increases happiness and the well being of body, mind and soul. When one is engrossed in the pleasure of play, they experience a state known as “flow” (Ward-Wimmer, D., 2003) in which your brain is in a near meditative state. The laughter, singing or happy movement that create flow positively effect the major systems of the body. We tend to take fuller breaths; obtaining better oxygen exchange, our digestive process relaxes; reducing the chance of gastrointestinal disorder, eases cardial tension; reducing stresses on the heart and the risk of hypertension, and finally it decreases muscle tension; reducing fatigue, body aches and stiffness (Ward-Wimmer, D., 2003).

Play and human development

In 1956, Erik Erikson, a German psychoanalyst and educator heavily influenced by Freud, theorised that every human passes through a series of eight "psychosocial crisis" stages over the entire life cycle; Infant (Hope), Toddler (Will), Preschooler (Purpose), School-Age Child (Competence), Adolescent (Fidelity), Young Adult (Love), Middle-aged Adult (Care) and Older Adult (Wisdom). As each stage arises, new ‘social interactions’ occur. If these interactions are not ‘satisfactorily resolved’ by an individual (Elkind, D., 1970, p.1) they will likely experience what is now commonly coined as an ‘identity crisis’. In other words, the foundation of a house is essential to the first floor, which in turn must be structurally sound to support the second floor, third and so forth. If play has proven to help children express their identity and tackle underlying unconscious conflicts, there is reason to suggest that play can equally assist persons of all ages to negotiate new social interactions, preventing the onset of an identity crisis.

Dr Stuart Brown, a current physician, psychiatrist and clinical researcher is adamant that play is as ‘important than oxygen…a powerful force that can unlock human potential in all stages of life (Editorial Review, 2009). His comprehensive animal and human behaviour studies support his argument that play is essential for human happiness and survival, that it improves mental and physical health, intellect, social skills and our ability to adapt, create and produce. He argues that in tough times, like the experience of an ‘identity crisis’, we must play more than ever as it prepares us to handle unexpected interactions, seek out creative solutions and remain optimistic about the future. (Brown, S & Vaughen, C, 2010)

Supposing Brown is on the money, that we are designed by nature to flourish through play (Brown, S., Vaughen, C, 2010) should we not be promoting the power of play, designing ways to integrate play into daily lives of every Australian? Or are they already in the midst of play? By navigating chronologically through the Erikson’s eight stages of human development we examined how persons within these demographics are currently interconnecting and progressing with play.

First psychosocial crisis: Infancy
Trust versus Mistrust (Hope) (Elkind, D. 1970)

Over the last two decades, the number of babies born in Australia each year has averaged around a quarter of a million (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2007). As they arrive into this world they begin the first of Erikson eight stages of human development, looking around them, never at one thing but at the relationship between things and themselves (Berger, J. 2008, p.107).

“Rough and tumble” play is one of the earliest forms of social contact an infant immerses with. This form of play allows for the exploration of both the physical and social properties of playmates, people around them, in manner “directly analogous” to the exploration of themselves and their place in the world around them (Cheyne, J. 1989, p.11). This form of play was first observed in chimpanzees, characterized by peculiar facial expressions, called play-faces, pushing, shoving and characteristic postures. An infant’s earliest ‘rough and tumble’ play experience is often elicited when their mother makes a “play-face”. An infant will respond to this interaction physically, termed “pushing and shoving”, often by placing their mothers hand in their mouth and softly biting. A mother will often physically respond to this ‘interaction’ by tickling their infants chin, evoking a reciprocate giggle and imitative play-face made by the infant. The reaction of the infant will often encourage the mother to begin the play cycle over again, starting with another play-face (Cheyne, J. 1989, p.11). Through this form of play, the infant teaches their mother to play a tickling game but is simultaneously exploring the physical and social properties of their mother in relation to themselves and their place within the environment (Cheyne, J., 1989, p. 11).

In order to further understand the environment around them an infant will immerse him or hefself in exploratory play. Play theorists, Belksy and Most, conducted a study on forty infants in an attempt to further understand this type of play. They focused on object manipulation, arguing that for an infant, "the object is what I do" (Belksy, J. & Most, K. 1981, p.631). They found that from early to late infancy object exploration play is slowly modified so that the child's actions become more tailored to fit the specific features of the object. Towards the end of this first stage in human development, the infant will be guided in exploratory play by questions surrounding objects like "what is this and what can it do with it?" (Belksy, J. & Most, K. 1981, p.631).

Piaget argues that infancy play serves cognitive development, especially with respect to the practical side of intelligence and new sensory-motor skills (Belksy, J. & Most, K. 1981, p.637). Through rough and tumble, imitative and object play an infant learns to trust its immediate environment and secure a basic optimism for the future. If the infant receives poor care and attention and restricted exposure to stimulation for play, the infant will transition to the second stage of human development filled with insecurities, mistrust, fear and suspicion (Elkind, D. 1970).

Second psychosocial crisis: Ages 2-4 – Toddler
Autonomy versus Doubt (Will) (Elkind, D. 1970)

During the second stage of human development play builds on a childs sensori-motor skills and practical intelligence. A child during this stage develops a sense of autonomy through play, discovering their ability to control muscles, impulses, and environments (Elkind, D., 1970, p.8).

Through object play a child will start to spontaneously make use of their ability to separate meaning from an object (Cattanach, A. 1998, p.113). During the earlier stages development , a toddler will tend to play with realistic replicas of objects found in the world around them, assisting the toddlers progress towards more imaginative combinations. Cattanach catergorises this type of play as object dependent transformational play. As the toddler develops further they will begin to immerse in pretend play using less realistic objects, props and roles to create and facilitate new imaginary worlds and meanings. Cattanach categorises this type of play as object dependent transformational play.

Lindqvist believes that when objects are accompanied with a story, the object becomes more interesting for a child. From a childs perspective, object narrative play acts as a catalyst for further imaginary play and exploration of new worlds with new meanings. (Lindqvist, G, 2001, p.12). Furthermore, this type of literacy-related play aids the intellectual development of a child, allowing them to explore

and comprehend the interactions between these two realms, preparing them for the third stage in human development, which invites role-play and fantasy with pre-school peers (Saracho, O. & Spodek, B. 2006, p.707).

Whichever type of object play the child immerses in at this age, their inner selves take pride in new accomplishments and their ability to achieve things independently. If a child is heavily restricted from playing with objects and fantasy, they are more likely to enter the next stage of human development with a sense of doubt in their own abilities to control and shape the world around them (Elkind, D, 1970, p.8).

Third psychosocial crisis: Ages 4-6 – Preschooler
Initiative versus Guilt (Purpose) (Elkind, D. 1970)

Erikson theorized that during the third stage of human development a child learns to imagine and to broaden his skills through fantasy play that involves cooperating with others, leading and following peers. Whether the child will leave this stage with his sense of initiative considerably increased depends on whether parents deride or inhibit fantasy or play activity (Elkind, D., 1970, p10).

A child will tend to transition slowly from fantasy centered on self and the environment to fantasy involving peers and/or friends. Fantasy, or pretend play as it is often referred to, involves quite sophisticated social role-playing skills with peers and involves an ‘as if…’ orientation to the world. It involves actions, use of objects, and verbalisations with nonliteral meanings often demonstrated through the acting out of distinct adult roles such as mummy, fireman, doctor and so forth (Pellegrini, A. & Smith, P. 1998, p. 52). Bateson believes that when children fantasy play they learn to operate simultaneously at two levels. At one level they are involved in their pretend roles and stories, allowing them to focus on the make-believe meaning of objects and actions. At the same time they are aware of their own identities, the other players real identities, and the real-life meanings of the objects and actions used in play (Cattanach, A. 1998, p.113). They learn to empathise, sympathise and distinguish between social rules and whilst maintaining their personal freedom (Lindqvist, G. 2001, p.12).

According to Pellegrini, the role of fantasy in play peaks during the late preschool years before declining throughout stage four of human development (Pellegrini, A. & Smith, P. 1998, p. 52). If a child is immobilized or restricted from pretend play they will transcend into the next stage of human development with a sense of guilt. The child may feel fearful, hang to the fringes of social groups and continue to depend unduly on adults throughout the primary school years (Elkind, D., 1970, p10).

Fourth psychosocial crisis: Ages 6-11 – School-age Child
Industry versus Inferiority (Competence) (Elkind, D. 1970)

“School age” comprises the fourth stage of human development according to Erikson. Here the four to six year old child learns to master the more formal skills of life, transitioning from free to more elaborately structured play. This new form of play involves relating with peers according to rules and mastering social skills. For the child who, because of his successful resolutions of earlier psychosocial crisis, already trusts, is autonomous and full of initiative, this transition into school life and play is smooth. According to Erikson, that child, if they continue to play throughout primary school, will emerge with a sense of industry (Elkind, D., 1970, p11).

The term industry is concerned with how things are made, how they work and what they do which predominates play during primary school years. When children are encouraged in their efforts to make, do or build practical things and are then praised for their efforts and initiative, their sense of industry is enhanced (Elkind, D., 1970, p11). It is also enhanced through games play, a component of school play that tends to be competitive, characterized by agreed upon or often externally imposed rules. Frequently the goal of games is winning, at this point a child begins to recognise that play is not always enjoyable, play is a learning experience, sometimes stressful if the child is not self-assured. When the child begins playing games for the first time they often change the rules to suit themselves, breaking the game. As a child develops further they come to believe that the rules are unalterable, it is much later in their teenage years that they realise rules can be broken (Bettleheim, B. 2010, p.3-4).

Locomotor play also assists in developing a child’s industrious nature and involves all activities that are physically vigorous. Alarmingly around 30% of Victorian children aged between five and fourteen do not participate in physical games at all, preferring to spend time amidst sedentary activities such as homework, computer games, internet usage and watching television (State of Victoria, 2010). Although some of these activities can be defined as play, they lack the social and health benefits that locomotor play bring to personal development. Children who participate in locomotor play have a reduced risk of obesity, higher cardiovascular fitness, healthier bones, muscles, ligaments and tendons, improved coordination and balance, increased ability to physically relax, improved sleep, improved mental health, personal confidence and development of leadership skills such as cooperation and negotiation (State of Victoria, 2010).

Children who refrain from participating in games and locomotor play at this stage in their human development may find transition into secondary school difficult as their ability to socialize and connect with others emotionally, physically and intellectually has already been incapacitated. The risk of them feeling inferior in comparison to others is high and they will find it difficult gaining the confidence to believe they have a purpose in the world. (Elkind, D. 1970, p.11)

Fifth psychosocial crisis: Ages 12-18 – Teenagers

Identity vs role confusion (Fidelity) (Elkind, D, 1970)

According to Erikson ‘an adolescent must struggle to discover and find his or her own identity, while negotiating and struggling with social interactions and “fitting in”, and developing a sense of morality and right from wrong’ (Learning-theories.com, 2008). Teenage years are often described as difficult times, play allows teenagers to explore the issues they face day-to-day. Naturally teenagers do not continue to play seriously with building blocks and teddy bears, the definition changes and play becomes a time for stress release, therapy, social interaction, activities, fitness and mental stimulation.

The article, Group play therapy with junior high school students ,(Zuchelli, 1993) describes a case study conducted by Paul Zuchelli. After working as a counsellor at a junior high school, Zuchelli identified the importance of play and the transition of play from childhood to young adulthood. He used ‘play therapy’ to help disruptive, under-performing, depressed and anxious students improve their behaviour and well being. Originally a room was designated as a play area, and included ‘toys’ such as board games, a mechanical hockey game, lego, human and animal figures and drawing materials. ‘Although they may continue to play with toys in the privacy of their homes, in the glare of public scrutiny at school, most (students) disavow such activities with disdain’ (Zuchelli, 1993). After an initial session Zuchelli found that students preferred social play that did not include toys, they were subsequently removed from the room.

‘Junior high school students, as they venture from childhood into adolescence, engage in a number of social play activities unique to their stage in life’ (Zuchelli, 1993). For these students the definition of play changes, it was no longer about fantasy as ‘there was little make-believe going on and little emotional expression other than an insatiable need to win at every game’ (Zuchelli, 1993). Students preferred play activities such as “pranking”, a social play popular with boys where ‘making funny noises and the expelling of noxious odours became a form of “pranking” which was an essential form of communication between students and counsellors’ (Zuchelli, 1993). ‘Reporting’, a role-playing game where someone tells a story about their life, was popular with teenage girls.

After the program Zuchelli noted the teenagers ‘improved dramatically in terms of mood and adjustment’ (Zuchelli, 1993). The students opened up, and were given time to express themselves and learn to behave in a positive social way with their peers and counsellors. The research concluded that ‘play therapy is a beneficial therapeutic approach for troubled junior high school students’ (Zuchelli, 1993).

It is during these that ‘adolescents begin to develop a strong affiliation and devotion to ideals, causes, and friends’ (Learning-theories.com, 2008). This study shows that social connections through play are important to teenagers as discussed in relation to Erikson’s theory.

Sixth psychosocial crisis: Ages 18-35 – Young Adulthood

Fidelity & Intimacy and Solidarity vs Isolation (Love) (Elkind, D, 1970)

Erikson states ‘at the young adult stage, people tend to seek companionship and love’ (Learning-theories.com, 2008). People continue to develop their relationships during this stage of their lives by involving themselves in activities such as going to the local pub, having lunch at a cafe with friends or going to a nightclub. These are all forms of play and are a way for people to meet each other and socialise. These activities encourage engagement and interaction because people enjoy socialising and it is the foundation to building relationships.

‘Men tend to view flirting as more sexual than women do, and women attribute more relational and fun motivations to flirting interactions than men do’ (Henningsen, 2004, p 1). Flirting is described as playful, fun and engaging because it is a form of playing. Young adulthood is a time when people are looking for partners and flirting is considered a courtship initiation. However, flirting is not always displayed with sexual intent ‘behaviours identified as flirting behaviours are used when people attempt to promote a closer relationship’ (Cacioppo, T & Christakis, N & Fowler, J, 2009, p 1). Without these relationships people can feel isolated as human communication and contact is important to maintain good health. ‘Social isolation decreases the lifespan of the fruit fly, promotes the development of obesity and Type 2 diabetes in mice, delays the positive effects of running on adult neurogenesis in rats’ (Cacioppo, T & Christakis, N & Fowler, J, 2009, p 1). These studies show that isolation is detrimental to animals and these results can be applied to humans.

During this stage ‘young adults seek deep intimacy and satisfying relationships, but if unsuccessful, isolation may occur. Significant relationships at this stage are with marital partners and friends’ (Learning-theories.com, 2008). Erikson’s theory encourages human relationships, and to form these relationships humans must rely on forms of play to create social contact with others.

Seventh psychosocial crisis: Ages 35-65 – Adulthood for the individual
Generativity vs. Self absorption or Stagnation (Care) (Elkind, D., 1970)
As adults, the need to play freely has eroded, lost amongst the competitive pressures of society. Adulthood is often a time when individuals take on a heightened sense of responsibility, control and work to establish stability. Erikson believes that in middle age a state of generativity, concern for others and future generations, often takes place. While transitions in life such as children leaving home, career changes or retirement are new issues one may also need to adapt to during this phase of life (Baptiste, N., 1995, p. 33-35).

‘Personal, family, employment, community, and societal stressors influence our lives in such a way that our disposition for pure, unadulterated play has diminished’ (Baptiste, N., 1995, p. 33). Society’s expectation to especially excel ones career during this adult phase of life has replaced much time for play with ‘order and routine, appearances and paperwork’ (Baptiste, N., 1995, p. 33). The stressful environment the workplace has become was made obvious by results uncovered by the National Health Survey 2001, conducted by the ABS. It found 1 in 3 adults suffers from moderate to extreme stress (Zen at Work, 2003). A direct link between these high stress levels and the work place was confirmed by the findings of WorkCover from June of 2004. They found ‘stress-related workers compensation claims have increased by 400% in the last 10 years’ (Zen at Work, 2003).

Increased stress levels within the workplace and their negative implications on productivity, team and individual health and well being has forced major corporations within Australia to embrace the power for play to relax and reduce stress. Play is being injected into the workplace in various forms. The physical release of stress through active play benefits the mind, body and soul whilst it also utilizes the therapeutic nature of play, creating a state of ‘flow’ amongst employees and a happier workplace (Ward-Wimmer, D., 2003).

To satisfy adult needs we must creatively experimenting through play. This fosters creative thinking, problem solving, self-expression and the ability to clearly assess all possibilities of a situation, whether initially feasible or not. This strategy creates innovative, ground breaking thinking. It may sound crazy ‘but people who are crazy enough to think they can change the world, are the ones who do’ (St. Clair, M., 2005). Take Apple Computers, they dominate their marketplace by constantly changing the face of technology through creative exploration. Similarly, Walt Disney’s dedication to play, as an adult, created something that challenged and transformed the world of entertainment forever (St. Clair, M., 2005).

Just as children play to develop adaptive behaviours, bandaging imaginary hurts or enacting attending school, in preparation for the grown-up role they will one day undertake, so do adults only in less obvious ways. In anticipation of events, adults talk out aloud to themselves in preparation for a conversation they need to have with someone or dance to imaginary music to ensure their outfit looks good from all angles during a night out dancing. These are not typical forms of play like engaging in sport or making shadow puppets against a wall, but they are playful experiments we engage in on a daily basis because we know they help us prepare survival skills and adapt successfully to situations we foresee in our futures. The ability to adapt to so many lifestyle transitions as an adult is imperative and clearly illustrates the importance of play during this phase of life (Ward-Wimmer, D., 2003).

No longer can adult play be denied or looked down upon. ‘Play is a natural and enduring behaviour in adults, it has healing powers for the mind and spirit that are only beginning to be appreciated and learnt to use’ (Ward-Wimmer, D., 2003, p. 10). This explains the excitement that surrounds a dress up party? Finally we have the excuse we need to dress up, be creative and act a little silly (Ward-Wimmer, D., 2003).

By isolating ourselves and not forming family bonds, those in middle age will fail to achieve a state of generativity causing individuals to become self-absorbed. They will enter the last stage of life unhappy and with feelings of inactivity and meaninglessness.

Seventh psychosocial crisis: Ages 35-65 – Adulthood in the family context
Generativity vs. Self absorption or Stagnation (Care) (Elkind, D., 1970)
Unlike the people who do not have families and fall into this ‘state self-absorption’, people in the state of generativity forgo personal needs and comforts for the sake of their family and future generations (Elkind, D., 1970). This leads them to bond with their family in the act of play called “family play time”, defined by Kerry J. Daly as the act of ‘spending “quality” time together that enhances (the) collective well-being’ (Daly, 2001).

'Family time was neither highlighted nor ritualized, for it was simply there' (Gillis, 1996) in the lives of people living before the mid 19^th century. It was around this time that the Victoria Protestant belief in ritualized dinners and children’s bedtimes and the adherence to a day of rest of Sundays, Sabbartarianism, emerged establishing the concept of family play time (Daly, 2001). But, with the industrialization of the workforce, family play time no longer became the joyous, carefree experience that produced fond memories, instilled rituals for future generations and brought families together as it began to adopt the ‘pressures of work deadlines, cycles, pauses, and interruptions' (Daly, 2001). Many parents express the feeling that 'there is never enough (family play time), that it is in service of the children and that they are duty-bound by it' (Daly, 2001).

In a study of 32 dual earning middle class parents in Los Angeles by Margaret Beck and Jeanne Arnold found that the home was no longer a place of leisure and play for adults with families. The study found that only 15% of parents time spent indoors over a 3 year period was dedicated to leisure activities (Arnold & Beck, 2009). That time was also found to be in 'very short, fragmented episodes' (Arnold & Beck, 2009) with the passive act of watching television being the most common shared activity undertaken by parents at 83%, with reading at 15% (Arnold & Beck, 2009). John Robinson and Geoffrey Godbey observed that 'television remains the dominant feature of...free time' (Robinson & Godbey, 1997), which raises the question of whether family time need be a purely physical activity or whether passive, sedentary activities constitute as positive family play time.

The study Physically active families – debunking the myth? discussed the impact of family based physical activity on family members, raising the importance of increased physical activity as a way of not only increasing the benefits highlighted in the fourth stage of Erikson’s theory but also enhancing mental health, increasing parent-child communication, and producing a bond within the family unit (Thompson, Jago, Brockman, Cartwright, Page, Fox, 2009). In questioning 30 British parents from low to high socio-economic statuses, this study from Janice Thompson et al. found that parents were well educated on the benefits of family physical activity believing it to be 'important or very important for family life' (Thompson et al, 2009). But, it also found that 'families did little or no physical activity together as a family unit' (Thompson et al, 2009). The report found that in many cases children participated in after school activities that required parents to 'pair off with one or more children to provide transport to activities' (Thompson et al, 2009) thus preventing them from being completed as a family unit.

When these families were able to participate in activities together it was usually the 'by-product of another activity such as walking the dog...and walking to and from school' (Thompson et al, 2009). The act of passive television watching in the modern lifestyle was also highlighted, but family meal times, gardening and the playing of board or video games were also common activities that families share together (Thompson et al, 2009). The research conducted also uncovered the fact that many parents believe that 'spending time together as a family is very important, however the style of activities they engaged in, whether they were physical or sedentary, was not of great importance' (Thompson et al, 2009).

This was a sentiment also highlighted by Kerry Daly, who discovered that family play time meant the need to be 'engaged with each other, have everyone involved and be aware that they were involved with each other' (Daly, 2001). For these families it was the positive experiences that produced the most memorable and beneficial family play times. These were 'spontaneous and unscheduled' and were 'characterized by a desire to strip away all activity' (Daly, 2001) as a way of truly engaging with the family and disconnecting from other everyday stresses and commitments. Many of the parents in the generativity state, family play time is a way of instilling the concept of strong family bonds and also establishing rituals that would be continued by their children for the next generation.

Eighth psychosocial crisis: Ages 65 - Death
Integrity vs. Despair (Wisdom) (Elkind, D., 1970)

The last stage of life involves much reflection as an individuals major efforts are nearly over. Some elderly people look back on their life with a sense of integrity, contented by the fulfillment and meaning their life has had so far. Others may find they harbour a sense of despair in reflecting upon their missed opportunities, experiences and failures over the years (Elkind, D., 1970). Elderly people can struggle to find purpose in life as they age and ‘need to feel useful, to feel capable, and to feel that they have things that are interesting to do’ (ICT Results, 2009). For this phase of life the notion and importance of play has not been developed, adapted or explored adequately to meet the specific needs of the elderly.

According to studies of Australia’s ageing population by the Australian Local Government Association ‘the number of people aged over 65 will grow from 2.5 million as of June 2002, to 7.1 million by 2051’ (Australian Local Government Association, 2010), see figure 1. The cost of adapting to this shift in Australia’s demographic can be minimized by ensuring our elderly generation promote and participate in healthy ageing. In achieving this objective the benefits of play on the state of mind, body, emotion and spirit, can be a major contributor.

As people age their vulnerability to ill health increases greatly, cardiovascular diseases amongst the elderly is a major health issue that the elderly face and preventative techniques need to be developed to tackle this. The 1995 findings in the report 4109.0 – Older People, Australia: A Social Report, conducted by the ABS found that 90% of elderly Australians had experienced a recent illness, most commonly Hypertension (high blood pressure) and heart diseases (ABS 2006, Older People, Australia: A Social Report, 1999). Andrew Weil M.D., Complementary Health Practitioner explains how the new, state of the art computer game The Journey to Wild Divine is helping elderly people ease cardiovascular strain. It is a type of play that ‘you can incorporate into your life, to affect not only the longevity of your life, but the quality of your life’ (Wild Divine, 2010). The game combines new computer technology and biofeedback, which teaches and tracks controlled breathing, heartbeat and blood pressure, to combat Hypertension and depression. As these techniques, that relax the heart, are mastered the player progresses through the levels of the game. This combination of play and technology visually show the positive effects play can have on ones health and well being.

Hypertension can adversely affect one’s cognitive performance, especially as we age. Figure 2, the results of work recalling tests shows this. Cognition is the process of thought and knowing and is the key to maintaining a young brain is staying active and engaging in regular activities that stimulate the mind. Preventing the cognitive decline in the elderly through interactive play was the prime objective of ElderGames (ICT Results, 2009). Equipped with the knowledge that ‘play can help ageing people stay cognitively fit and stimulate much-needed social interaction…and life satisfaction’ (ICT Results, 2009). An enticing and challenging play platform was designed to promote active, healthy ageing in a relaxed, playful manner.

A study conducted by Best-online-bingo.com reported ‘the online bingo phenomenon has expanded significantly since the year 2000, from about 10 online bingo sites to more than 100 sites in 2006’ (PR Leap, 2009). For the elderly this ever-growing interest in bingo has fuelled online accessibility because it is played for the pure enjoyment whilst also offering cognitive benefits. The combined findings of Julie Winstone, from the centre for Visual Cognition at Southampton University’s Psychology Department, and Janina Bognar, program Manager of Memory Lane at circle Centre Adult Day Services in Richmond, Virginia, found that playing bingo with both numbers and words can ‘aid in counteracting some ageing effects’ (PR Leap, 2009) and actually ‘train elderly players to improve their attention skills’ (PR Leap, 2009). Bingo develops the initiative of the elderly player by combining their natural abilities with practical play. This improves the speed and precision of short-term memory, stimulates long-term memory and concentration as well as utilizing literacy skills. For the elderly, playing bingo also satisfies their need to feel useful, capable and connected socially through a heightened sense of self-esteem (PR Leap, 2009).

Summary of findings
It is clear from the research undertaken in this literature review that play is essential for human life. Its ability to shape and define us through improved social skills as well as mental and physical health means that we, as humans, are better equipped to cope with the myriad of experiences, both positive and negative, that we encounter. But, it is these positive effects of play that do not seem to infiltrate all stages of the human life. We are encouraged to play as children but we forget play as adults, instead we replace play with commitments to work and family. As we gain more time in our elderly years we feel we are no longer able to experience proper child’s play or that there is a stigma attached to pure unadulterated play. It is clear that more needs to be done to promote play throughout the entire lifecycle. Our lifestyles are constantly changing and technology has a huge role to play. Should we not be embracing these advances to further advance our pleasure when it comes to play? Promotion of continued play seems to be the key to a happier more fulfilled life and using technological advances will help.

Conclusion
Play has been defined and redefined by some of the greatest minds we have ever known. These men and women dedicated their lives to the exploration of play and its effects on us as humans. Play has proven to help children express their identity and tackle new problems, it improves all aspects of health ensuring that we are able to be positive and productive members of society. By exploring play through Erikson’s eight stages clear evidence has been uncovered for its constant place in our lives. Infants need play to form an understanding of their relationship to things around them. For children, play builds confidence and social skills. They begin to empathize and sympathize, learning personal and social boundaries. Play is used by teenagers to further discover their true identity in a time of great change, it allows them to gain deeper relationships and improves their mood. For young adults, play is a way of gaining companionship and love. Play transforms lives by increasing a person’s ability to socialize and discover personal tastes. In adults, play increases work productivity and personal creativity, but it also encourages deeper bonds within the family unit. And for the elderly, play is almost seen as a new discovery, a way of reconnecting with their past self. Play stimulates the brain, heightens self-esteem and enables them to feel useful once more. Play is the key to happiness, it has power and gives us power. It knows no age, therefore we should be designing better ways to promote and integrate play into our lives at all stages of the life span.

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